Lesson 3 quiz free essay sample

1. The electron magnifying instrument has been especially valuable in considering prokaryotes, on the grounds that electrons can infiltrate intense prokaryotic cell dividers. ~prokaryotes are so little. prokaryotes move so rapidly they are difficult to photo. their organelles are little and firmly pressed together. 2. Which of the accompanying terms is most firmly connected with settling power? ~Clarity Bigger size More prominent shading Lighter picture 3. The individual who previously utilized the term cell to depict the essential unit of life was Anton Van Leeuwenhoek. James Watson. Louis Pasteur. ~Robert Hooke. 4. Which of coming up next is valid for prokaryotic cells? ~They have no core. They have mitochondria. They have an endoplasmic reticulum. Plant cells are one model. 5. Which of the accompanying comprise of prokaryotic cells Plants and creatures Microorganisms and archaea ~Plants, parasites, microbes and archaea Plants, microorganisms and archaea 6. By and large, a similar little size; an elephant just contains more cells. We will compose a custom exposition test on Exercise 3 test or then again any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page What is the primary preferred position of a little cell size? Little cells are more averse to blast than huge cells. It takes less vitality to make a living being out of little cells. ~A little cell has a bigger surface zone to-volume proportion than a huge cell. Little cells require less oxygen than enormous cells. 7. Ribosomes are found on the outside of this structure. Focal Vacuole Unpleasant ER Chloroplasts ~Golgi Bodies 8. The capacity of the core is to produce proteins. contain the cytoplasm. ~contain and repeat DNA. add sugars to proteins. 9. The capacity of ribosomes is to integrate RNA. DNA. lipids. ~protein. 10. Which of the accompanying structures keeps up cell shape, stays the organelles, and moves portions of the cell? Hydrogen bonds ~Cytoskeleton Cilia Golgi complex 11. One of the primary auxiliary parts of plant cell dividers is ~cellulose. glucose. mitochondria. protein. 12. The layers of cells are essentially made out of lipids and nucleic acids. proteins and nucleic acids. lipids and starches. ~lipids and proteins. 13. Which of the accompanying accurately coordinates a structure with its capacity? ~Mitochondrion-photosynthesis Core cell breath Lysosome-processing Ribosome-lipid make 14. The understudy finds a cell of a kind never observed. The cell has both a core and a cell divider. Along these lines it must be a ________. ~plant liver creature prokaryotic 15. _________ are the significant lipids found in the plasma layer. Steroids ~Phospholipids Film proteins Unsaturated fats 16. Which of coming up next is a component of the Golgi mechanical assembly? Assurance and backing Processing of natural issue ~Protein alteration Protein combination 17. A protist that contains contractile vacuoles probably lives in a marine situation. inside the cells of another living being. ashore. ~in new water. 18. Microtubules are related with ~protein amalgamation. cell shape. absorption. detoxification. 19. Cell breath can be portrayed as the transformation of the vitality of daylight to vitality put away in natural mixes. ~stored in food atoms to vitality put away in ATP. of daylight to vitality put away in inorganic mixes. put away in ATP to vitality put away in food atoms. 20. Which of coming up next is the right request of occasions? DNA makes RNA; RNA makes protein. ~RNA makes DNA; DNA makes protein. DNA makes protein; protein makes RNA. RNA makes protein; protein makes DNA.

Jean Jacques Rousseau Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Jean Jacques Rousseau - Essay Example This assent of the general population is fundamentally significant for government assistance of a general public since this assent is straightforwardly identified with a low pace of wrongdoing, brutality, and bedlam. So as to keep away from extraordinary results and to protect the incomparability of the state over the people, numerous scholars made incredible commitments to bringing issues to light about the implicit agreement. This arresting idea picked energy because of fantastic works presented by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. This paper is fundamentally founded on examining the exceptionally critical book composed by Rousseau in 1762 which is called â€Å"The Social Contract† (TSC). Following conversation will incorporate an exhaustive investigation of this idea which was thoroughly advanced by Rousseau in his book. The exposition will attempt to investigate what precisely Rousseau implies by the term â€Å"Social contract† and what is the idea of its relationship with leg islative issues. Rousseau was very much aware of the worth added by common opportunity to idealistic execution throughout everyday life, so he inconclusively worried on supplanting individual flexibility with common opportunity. He recommended that common endeavors or commitments without an implicit agreement will undoubtedly be viewed as overbearing (Rousseau 2004, p. 195). In any case, an implicit agreement rouses the whole network to force a resistant individual to submit to the general will. Rousseau was of the view that this kind of network conduct adds monstrous solidarity to mind and character. It was never his expectation to drive individuals into subjugation on the grounds that in TSC, he doesn't ask his crowd to totally forfeit their physical opportunity. Or maybe, he focuses on that the social request is in truth a method of protecting normal opportunity. Rousseau is exceptionally aware of the way that overabundance of everything is awful. There is a degree to which physical opportunity ou ght to be yielded so as to be conceded into a common society and become a full and

Career Resources

Career Resources As the end of the school year and graduation for the class of 2019 is approaching, I felt like it would be a good time to write about all of the wonderful career resources the university has to offer. Seeking out internships or employment opportunities can seem like a daunting task, especially if you dont know where to begin. That is why the University of Illinois has a plethora of resources for students to take advantage of and help you go land the internship or job you are seeking! Regardless of your major, every college at the University of Illinois has its own career services. These career services are a great resource for helping you achieve your professional goals beyond college. They can help you by reviewing your resume, informing you of internship and professional opportunities, or even help you plan for graduate programs if you want to seek an advanced degree or a career in academia. Many colleges even host specialized events, for instance, the College of Media hosts a professional networking event called Media Career Night where you can ask a panel of Illinois College of Media alumni questions about career opportunities and network with them face to face. Other colleges at the university host college-specific career fairs or career and networking events. Another awesome campus career resource is our Career Center on Wright Street, located just steps away from Altgeld Hall and the Illini Union Bookstore. The Career Center offers many similar resources as the college career services (i.e. resume critiques, personal statement reviews, etc.), but also offer mock interviews, career coaching, LinkedIn reviews, and more! The world is full of opportunities and the University of Illinois offers fantastic services that will help prepare you. Be sure to take advantage of these resources when seeking opportunities. Tony Class of 2019 I am a first-generation, non-traditional, transfer student studying Advertising in the College of Media. I grew up in Pleasant Hill, Illinois and spent nearly 10 years recording and touring all over North America as a professional musician.

SpaceShipOne The First Private Aircraft in Space

On June 21, 2004, an aircraft called SpaceShipOne  was air-launched from the Mojave Desert in California. SpaceShipOne resembled an airplane, but rather than coasting at 35,000 feet as most commercial airplanes do, it kept climbing upward. Finally, it reached a peak altitude slightly beyond the Kà ¡rmà ¡n line—the 100-kilometer-high boundary between the earth’s atmosphere and outer space—and returned to Earth. With this accomplishment, the experimental rocket-powered SpaceShipOne aircraft and its crew achieved a major milestone: the first-ever successfully manned private spaceflight.  Ã‚   Breaking NASAs Monopoly Before SpaceShipOne, space travel was only  possible through the collective aspirations of entire nations. After all, it was the former Soviet Union’s space program that put humans in space on April 12, 1961, while the United States’ own National Aeronautics and Space Administration leapfrogged them eight years later by being the first country to put a human on the moon. With monopolistic legal restrictions and an average shuttle mission cost topping $450 million, private enterprise had little incentive to pursue commercial spaceflight. That all changed around the turn of the 21st century. By then, the U.S. government had reversed significant barriers through legislation such as the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984, which opened up opportunities for private companies to develop and test expendable launch systems. At the time, the legislation was meant primarily to encourage advancements for transporting satellites. The 1990 Launch Services Purchase Act, which directed NASA to enlist launch services from companies when necessary, also removed a significant hurdle.   This trend toward deregulation encouraged a slew of entrepreneurs to boost investment in what was shaping up to be a new kind of space race. In 2000, Amazon founder and CEO Jeff Bezos set up Blue Origin, an aerospace startup aimed at developing technologies that would make space travel a feasible reality. Two years later, then-CEO of PayPal Elon Musk launched a competing firm, SpaceX. Not to be outdone, the billionaire founder and CEO of Virgin, Richard Branson, followed suit  in 2004 with his own commercial space unit, Virgin Galactic.        Ã‚   A Top Secret Project The Tier One project, a once-secret commercial space program, was one of the first private enterprise space exploration projects. Tier One was started in the mid-1990s by leading aerospace engineer Burt Rutan and supported with funding from billionaire and Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen. In earnest, Rutan started on designs for SpaceShipOne. The aircraft was intended to be capable of carrying three human passengers and powered by a rocket system once it reached an altitude of 15 kilometers. Once in outer space, it would be piloted back down to Earth’s atmosphere and land horizontally on a runway.   The prototype Rutan  was 28 feet long with a five-foot wide fuselage and a wingspan of 16 feet. When fully fueled, it weighed roughly 800 pounds. Powered by a hybrid rocket motor commissioned from satellite firm SpaceDev, propulsion was generated by burning a fuel mixture made up of hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene (tire rubber) and nitrous oxide (laughing gas), which cut  down on the possible hazards and costs of storing separately the fuel and the oxidizer used to generate combustion. To complete the trip from land to outer space and back again, SpaceShipOne  transformed  into three different figurations, depending on the stage of the journey. One particularly innovative configuration was called feathering. Once in space, the pilot would prepare for re-entry by folding and positioning the rear of the wings upward, forming a nearly-perpendicular V shape angle with the front part of the wings. The idea  was to increase the drag and help  stabilize the aircraft as it glided back down, which in turn made it easier for the pilot to steer. The interior of SpaceShipOne was pressurized so that passengers would have a sea-level breathable atmosphere. Keeping the cabin at a consistent and comfortable pressurized level meant that space suits weren’t necessary. The plane was piloted using a proprietary flight navigation system that utilized  GPS and sensors to relay information and a display interface that primed the pilot for each phase of the flight (boost phase, coast, reentry, and gliding). To launch the aircraft, Rutan custom-designed a carrier plane named White Knight, otherwise known in aviation as the mother ship. The White Knight had long thin wings that stretched to about 82 feet, enabling it to haul SpaceShipOne beneath it in what’s called a parasite configuration. It featured the same cabin as the rocket ship so that pilots could  practice and better identify issues that may occur during a manned space flight. To Outer Space and Retirement SpaceShipOne made its first powered test flight on December 17, 2003 (which, coincidentally, was the hundredth anniversary of the worlds first powered flight, launched by the Wright Brothers). But it wasn’t until the fourth test flight, code-named 15P, that the privately-funded manned aircraft would finally leave Earths atmosphere. The SpaceShipOne team achieved other milestones, as well. Prior to launch day, the Mojave Air and Space Port launch site became the first licensed commercial spaceport. A few days after the test flight, pilot Mike Melvill became the first person to obtain a commercial astronaut license. SpaceShipOne carried  out two more test flights, soaring to an altitude as high as 112 kilometers, before being retired. After the aircraft’s final test flight on October 4, 2004, it was showcased at a few airshows and presentations before being carried by the White Knight to Smithsonian Institutions National Air and Space Museum, where it is on display for visitors.               Significant progress has been made since SpaceShipOne’s historic flight. Private aerospace firms hope to make space travel less costly by perfecting a reusable launch system thats safe and efficient. Aerospace engineers at companies like SpaceX continue to make progress, moving us closer to a future of commercial space flight.   Sources Bray, Nancy. â€Å"Space Shuttle and International Space Station.† NASA, NASA, 28 Apr. 2015, www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/information/shuttle_faq.html.Moon, Mariella. â€Å"What You Need to Know about Commercial Spaceflight.† Engadget, 14 July 2016, www.engadget.com/2014/08/18/commercial-space-flight-explainer/.Charlton, Alistair. â€Å"Space Race 2.0: How SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin and More Will Take Us to the Stars.† International Business Times UK, Blizzard Entertainment, 11 July 2017, www.ibtimes.co.uk/space-race-2-0-how-spacex-virgin-galactic-blue-origin-more-will-take-us-stars-1627455.Sharp, Tim. â€Å"SpaceShipOne: The First Private Spacecraft | The Most Amazing Flying Machines Ever.† Space.com, Space.com, 2 Oct. 2014, www.space.com/16769-spaceshipone-first-private-spacecraft.html.Valdes, Robert. â€Å"How SpaceShipOne Works.† HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 8 Mar. 2018, science.howstuffworks.com/spaceshipone.htm.â€Å" How SpaceShipTwos Feathered Wings Were Supposed to Work.† NBCNews.com, NBCUniversal News Group, www.nbcnews.com/storyline/virgin-voyage/how-spaceshiptwos-feathered-wings-were-supposed-work-n240256.â€Å"Discover.† Mojave Air Space Port, www.mojaveairport.com/discover.html.Chmielewski, Tom. â€Å"Space Shuttle Pilot Salary.† Chron.com, 21 Nov. 2017, work.chron.com/space-shuttle-pilot-salary-1618.html.â€Å"SpaceShipOne.† The Wright Brothers | The Wright Company, Smithsonian Institute, 9 June 2018, airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/spaceshipone.

Prison System Rehabilitation And Self Growth - 1217 Words

Today’s prison system is riddled with problems, filled with corruption, crime, and little to no programs for rehabilitation. The current goal of the owners and operators of the prisons is to punish prisoners and to make as much money as possible. The welfare of the people locked in cages is not accounted for as much as it should be— safety, physical, and mental health of the inmates is should be prioritized over money and self-interest. Prison should be about rehabilitation, acknowledging the mistakes a person has made, and accepting the consequences of their actions. It should not be about dehumanization, judgment, and punishment. Therefore, I have developed a prison system based on these principles that will help people move on with†¦show more content†¦Keeping people locked away by themselves for extended periods of time can lead to mental insanity; and no social interaction is dangerous for the well being of humans. Solitary confinement is a barbaric way to punish someone—it is a legal way to torture people. The removal of solitary confinement would be the first strep in a more effective incarceration system. There are other, more effective ways to enforce rules other than throwing a person in a dark hole for days or weeks or even months on end. In order to get rid of solitary confinement, there has to be another system of punishment that is not as cruel but still gets the point across. I wanted to create a system of positive reinforcement and negative punishment among our system of incarceration. The more the inmates follow the rules and listen to the guards, the easier their lives are in prison. They can gain privileges such as extra phone time, extended visiting hours, priority on jobs, the ability to wear clothing of their choice, etc. for good behavior. For breaking the rules, their privileges can be taken away from them. They will not be allowed to see their family members, use the phone, etc. until the exhibit a change i n behavior and follow the rules. They will also have mandatory work added to their schedules or mandatory therapy sessions. However, the prisoners will feel more compelled to follow the rules if they are rewarded for their good behavior and they will not want to lose their

Who Killed Reconstruction Free Essays

North or South: Who Killed Reconstruction? Harper’s Weekly September 1, 1868 Harper’s Weekly September 1, 1868 â€Å"Is This a Republican Form of Government? Is This Protecting Life, Liberty, or Property? † â€Å"Is This a Republican Form of Government? Is This Protecting Life, Liberty, or Property? † Overview: The twelve years after the Civil War proved to be a difficult time for America. Called Reconstruction by historians, this era saw an increase of freedom for former slaves. However, there was also great resistance to change. We will write a custom essay sample on Who Killed Reconstruction? or any similar topic only for you Order Now In 1877 attempts to reconstruct the South officially ended, leaving white-only governments in power. This DBQ asks you to decide who, North or South, was most responsible for the end of Reconstruction Background Essay North or South: Who Killed Reconstruction †¦ the slave went free; stood a brief moment in the sun; then moved back again toward slavery. -W. E. B. Dubois 1876 was an exciting year for America. It was the 100th anniversary of The Declaration of Independence and America was on the move. Homesteaders and ranchers were filling up the land west of the Mississippi River. Railroads were being built at an astounding rate. It seemed the United States was creating enough opportunity that all Americans and millions of immigrants could pursue their hopes for happiness just as Thomas Jefferson had envisioned 100 years earlier. So it is a great irony of history that the election of 1876 officially crushed the American dream for millions of black Americans. This election saw Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate and eventual winner, square off against Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic nominee. Although Tilden won the popular ote by a wide margin, election results in Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana were so close that a winner could not be determined. If these three states went for Hayes, he would win the Electoral College vote and become President. Talk of a new Civil War was in the air as the opponents in the disputed states submitted separate sets of electoral ballots. An informal agreement, now called The Compromise of 1877, avoided the crisis by granting Hayes the Presidency. In return, Hayes promised to remove the last Federal soldiers from the South, almost guaranteeing that all-white governments would rise to power. The dream of Reconstruction was officially dead. For a while, however, it had seemed that the dream of Reconstruction might be realized. The 13th Amendment ended slavery. The 14th Amendment gave black Americans citizenship and civil rights. A Military Reconstruction Act was passed to make sure African-Americans’ new rights were protected. Black churches were founded. Public schools were built for black children, and universities like Howard, Fisk, Morehouse, and Hampton were founded for black students seeking higher education. Sixteen African-Americans were elected to Congress and numerous others served at state and local levels. Finally, the 15th Amendment was ratified making it illegal to deny someone the right to vote based on race. Indeed, real progress was made. However, in the early 1870s, the tide shifted. Southern states began to elect governments dedicated to whites-only rule. Between 1870 and 1876 all but three Southern states turned back Reconstruction efforts. When Rutherford B. Hayes agreed to remove federal soldiers, he was simply putting an end to an already dying effort. But dying or dead, what had gone wrong? Your job is to read the documents that follow and answer the question: North or South: Who killed Reconstruction? 1. Why was 1876 an important year for America? 2. Who ran for President in 1876? What were their political parties? 3. An â€Å"irony† is something you don’t expect, something that doesn’t seem to fit. What was the irony of history that occurred in 1876? 4. What was the Compromise of 1877? Who got what? 5. Describe each of the following Amendments to the Constitution. a. 13th Amendment: b. 14th Amendment: . 15th Amendment: Document A Source: In the years following the Civil War – throughout the South -state, city, and town governments passed laws to restrict the rights of free African-American men and women. These laws were often called â€Å"Black Codes. † The example below of â€Å"Black Codes† comes from laws passed in Opelousas, Louisiana immediately after the Civil War. —— ——————————————- 1. â€Å"No negro or freedmen shall be allowed to come within the limits of the town of Opelousas without special permission from his employers. Whoever breaks this law will go to jail and work for two days on the public streets, or pay a fine of five dollars. † ————————————————- ————————————————- 2. â€Å"No negro or freedman shall be permitted to rent or keep a house in town under any circumstances. No negro or freedman shall live within the town who does not work for some white person or former owner. † ————————————————- ————————————————- 3. No public meetings of negroes or freedmen shall be allowed within the town. † ————— Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- ————————————————- 4. â€Å"No freedman shall be allowed to carry firearms, or any kind of weapons. No freedman shall sell or exchange any article of merchandise within the limits of Opelousas without permission in writing from his employer. † ————————————————- ————————————————- 5. â€Å"Every negro is to be in the service of (work for) some white person, or former owner. Document Analysis How did black codes restrict the freedom of freedmen? Document B Document Analysis Based on the document above and your knowledge of U. S. history, what was the real end result o f sharecropping? Document C Source: Albion Tourgee, Letter on Ku Klux Klan Activities. New York Tribune, May 1870. Note: Tourgee was a white, Northern soldier who settled in North Carolina after the War. He served as a judge during Reconstruction and wrote this letter to the North Carolina Republican Senator, Joseph Carter Abbott. ————————————————- ———————————————— It is my mournful duty to inform you that our friend John W. Stephens, State Senator from Caswell, is dead. He was foully murdered by the Ku-Klux in the Grand Jury room of the Court House on Saturday†¦ He was stabbed five or six times, and then hanged on a hook in the Grand Jury room†¦ Another brave, honest Republican citizen has met his fate at the hands of these fiends†¦ —â€⠀Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- I have very little doubt that I shall be one of the next victims. My steps ave been dogged for months, and only a good opportunity has been wanting to secure to me the fate which Stephens has just met†¦ I say to you plainly that any member of Congress who, especially if from the South, does not support, advocate, and urge immediate, active, and thorough measures to put an end to these outrages†¦is a coward, a traitor, or a fool. ————————————————- Source: Independent Monitor, September 1, 1868. Document Analysis What group(s) is the KKK threatening? According to Tourgee, what types of people are being attacked by the KKK? Why would the KKK attack these people? How do these documents help answer the DBQ question? Document C Source: Abram Colby, testimony to a joint House and Senate Committee in 1872. Note: Colby was a former slave who was elected to the Georgia State legislature during Reconstruction. ————————————————- Colby: On the 29th of October 1869, [the Klansmen] broke my door open, took me out of bed, took me to the woods and whipped me three hours or more and left me for dead. They said to me, â€Å"Do you think you will ever vote another damned Radical ticket? I said, â€Å"If there was an election tomorrow, I would vote the Radical ticket. † They set in and whipped me a thousand licks more, with sticks and straps that had buckles on the ends of them. ———————————————â€⠀- ————————————————- Question: What is the character of those men who were engaged in whipping you? ————————————————- ————————————————- Colby: Some are first-class men in our town. One is a lawyer, one a doctor, and some are farmers†¦ They said I had voted for Grant and had carried the Negroes against them. About two days before they whipped me they offered me $5,000 to go with them and said they would pay me $2,500 in cash if I would let another man go to the legislature in my place. I told them that I would not do it if they would give me all the county was worth†¦ No man can make a free speech in my county. I do not believe it can be done anywhere in Georgia. Source: Harper’s Weekly, October 21, 1876. Caption: â€Å"Of Course he wants to vote the Democratic ticket. † Document Analysis Why did the KKK attack Abram Colby? According to Colby, what types of people make up the KKK? What seems to be the ultimate goal of the KKK? What is the main idea of the cartoon? Document D Source: Gerald Danzer et al. , The Americans, McDougall Littell, 1998. ————————————————- †¦ in the 1870s, Northern voters grew indifferent to events in the South. Weary of the ‘Negro Question’ and ‘sick of carpet-bag’ government, many Northern voters shifted their attention to such national concerns as the Panic of 1873 and corruption in Grant’s administration†¦. Although political violence continued in the South†¦ the tide of public opinion in the North began to turn against Reconstruction policies. Source: Kenneth Stampp, The Era of Reconstruction, 1865-1877, Vintage, 1967. ————————————————- Meanwhile southern Democrats gained strength when Congress finally removed the political disabilities from most of the prewar leadership. In May 1872, because of pressure from the Liberal Republican, Congress passed a general amnesty act which restored the right of office holding [and voting] to the vast majority of those who had been disqualified†¦After the passage of this act only a few hundred ex-Confederates remained unpardoned. Document Analysis Explain the phrases â€Å"weary of the ‘Negro Question’† and â€Å"‘sick of carpet-bag’ government. † Why might increased anger about the corruption in government lead to less interest in government attempts to reconstruct the South? How did the restoration of voting rights to white Southerners undermine efforts to preserve and protect the voting rights of the freedmen? Document E Source: Heather Cox Richardson, The Death of Reconstruction: Race, Labor and Politics in the Post-Civil War North, 1865-1901. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2001. ————————————————- In the fall of 1873, even the staunchly (firmly) pro-Grant and pro-freedman Boston Evening Transcript ran a letter †¦ arguing that â€Å"the blacks, as a people, are unfitted for the proper exercise of political duties†¦. The rising generation of †¦ blacks needed a period of probation and instruction; a period †¦ long enough for the black to have forgotten something of his condition as a slave and learned much of the true method of gaining honorable subsistence and of performing the duties of any position to which he might aspire. Northern artist’s portrayal of the South Carolina State Legislature during Reconstruction. Source: The Cover of Harper’s Weekly, March 14, 1874 Document Analysis According to the letter from the Boston Evening Transcript, why did some people believe blacks were unfit to be government officials? How does this letter show racism existed in the North? How do this cartoon letter help explain why Northerners lost interest in Reconstruction? How does the image above depict black politicians in the South? Document F Document Analysis How was it possible that Hayes â€Å"won† the election of 1876? How did this disputed election lead to the end of Reconstruction? How to cite Who Killed Reconstruction?, Essay examples

Morality and Death Penalty Essay Example

Morality and Death Penalty Paper Morality of Capital Punishment Every human life is precious. This is something that has been taught by the Roman Catholic Church for years. Each day one is alive can be seen as a gift from God. As a result of this gift, we hear many people come up with phrases such as â€Å"Live everyday as your last†, or â€Å"Live as if you’ll die tomorrow†. Unfortunately, for some, these phrases can be more than just a saying. They can be facts. The people, for whom this holds truth, tend to be disliked by many and even hated by some. The type of person who faces a simple phrase such as â€Å"Live as if you’ll die tomorrow† as something that is actually the truth, is typically not a person with much freedom. This type of person, like many other in the same situation, fall under one category; a criminal. A criminal is one held under imprisonment for committing a violent or unlawful act. The type of criminal who lives in uncertainty of their own life is left with the fear of execution every day, due to their act of murder on another human being. This idea brings forth the moral argument of Capital Punishment. We will write a custom essay sample on Morality and Death Penalty specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Morality and Death Penalty specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Morality and Death Penalty specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Capital Punishment is defined as the legally authorized killing of someone as punishment for a crime. The idea of taking a life as a means of punishing someone for murder has been the subject of a long and often heated debate. While many contend that Capital punishment serves the judicial system as a deterrent to crime and as a lawful penalty many others contend that Capital Punishment is both morally and ethically wrong. Capital Punishment has been used by the United States Government for decades. The government has found that the idea of the death penalty as a just way to punish those who have committed murder. Across the United States of America there are 34 states that actively use Capital Punishment. Most notably are Texas, California, Florida, and even smaller states such as Delaware. The other 16 states, for example, New York, have abolished Capital Punishment at some point in their history. Most recently is Illinois, who abolished the death penalty in their state earlier this year. Of those states that continue to use capital punishment, Texas remains the highest enforcer with 477 executions since 1976. This alone is an astonishing number, and it does not include the high execution rate up to the 50’s. In total, the United States of America, as a whole, have executed 1277 criminals. So far to date, there have been 43 executions in 2011. Most prisoners are forced to wait on Death Row prior to their execution for roughly 170 months. Nonetheless, when their day does come, many prisoners are forced to decide in what manner they wish to be killed. There are five methods of execution that consist of: lethal injection, electrocution, firing squad, hanging, and a gas chamber. The most frequently used in the U. S is the lethal injection. The least likely to be used is a firing squad or a gas chamber. A total of 1103 prisoners have been put to death by lethal injection since 1976 (Dieter 1). Overall, Capital Punishment has been held as a viable way to punish those convicted of a serious murder, despite its brutal method. Many find that Capital Punishment is a practical manner to punish those convicted of murder. This belief stems from the idea that Capital Punishment is a deterrent of crime. In other words, many find that the use of the death penalty publicly decreases the average crime rate. Researchers, who believe this, have found that each execution can be associated with 3 fewer murders in the state of which the execution took place. These scientists are stating that with the execution of one, three lives are saved. In addition, researchers have discovered that executions deter the murder of not only whites, but African-Americans as well. Each execution prevents the murder of one white person, 1. 5 African-Americans, and 0. 5 persons of other races. In other terms, one execution saves the life of not only one race of people, but many. Lastly, they have discovered that shorter waits on death row are connected with increased prevention. For each additional 2-year decrease in the death row wait, one murder is deterred (Muhlhausen 1). This means that if a criminal is executed quicker, it is most likely that people will not murder, therefore saving one life. In general, these people have found that one public execution can save up to 18 lives (Muhlhausen 1). It follows that, the execution of one has the potential to save many others. In contrary, many find this factual evidence to be falsified and over interpreted. As an opposition, many scientists have shown how Capital Punishment does not deter crime. For example, it is a known fact that the South has accounted for roughly 80% of the U. S’s executions. On top of this, the South also holds the U. S’s highest crime rate. Clearly, executing it’s prisoners has little affect on other criminals. Researchers have also used those nations without Capital Punishment to prove how it is an ineffective way to decrease crime. For example, Canada’s crime rate has dropped 27% since their abolishment of the death penalty. Scientists have also discovered factual evidence within the United States to demonstrate the ineffectiveness of Capital Punishment (Beadue 1). A clear example of this is shown by the New York Times survey that illustrates that those states without a death penalty have a lower murder rate. Many of these facts can be classified as coincidental, but nonetheless these facts show that the death penalty alone does not deter crime (Fessenden 1). One simple public execution cannot be given the credit for deterring crime based on this evidence. To conclude, public execution can only be coincidental to a decrease or increase in crime rates, proving it as a less effective way to deter crime across America. Whether or not it deters crime can be a miniscule fact to those who find that Capital Punishment as the only just punishment for one who has been convicted of murder and to those who find it completely unjust. Through surveys across the country, those in favor of Capital Punishment have said that only by putting murderers to death can society ensure that convicted killers do not kill again. In addition, many find that the cost to aid an imprisoned killer is unnecessary. Therefore, killing him proves to be cost efficient and easier on the government. On top of this, many find that if you have taken the life of another human being, you yourself do not deserve to live. Although a harsh statement, many refer back to the Old Testament to show the justification through â€Å"An eye for an eye†. Another example is seen through the fact that a prisoner can end up on parole and therefore never is handed the justice he or she deserves for murdering someone. In contrary, many find that Capital Punishment is unjust. For example, many view Capital Punishment as an example of an uncivilized society. In other words, a nation who uses Capital Punishment demonstrates to its citizens an uncivilized way to live (Muhlhausen 1). In addition, many find the death penalty to be a denial of civil liberties. This meaning that the government has no right to simply take a citizens life. Lastly, Capital Punishment is often gone about in an unjust manner. Those executed typically are poor and lack a good attorney, therefore are almost â€Å"set up† for murder. Ethically, Capital Punishment is dreadful. Typically criminal’s who are African American, poor, and in many cases both are executed because of a court appointed attorneys lack of skill. Evidently, they are convicted without a fair trial (National 1). Clearly, there are two sides to the argument that Capital Punishment is justifiable. Through all the facts and fictions of Capital Punishment, ultimately there is one question. This one question asks whether or not Capital Punishment is moral. Morality is defined as a system of ideas of right and wrong conduct. Because everyone’s moral code is different there can be many interpretations of whether or not Capital Punishment is a morally justified behavior. Many find Capital Punishment to be morally correct. This belief is caused by the idea that society has a moral obligation to protect the safety and welfare of its citizens. Many also find that society should support practices that bring about the utmost balance of good as opposed to evil. Clearly, those who believe this credit Capital Punishment as being one of these practices. Finally, those who find it morally correct state that justice itself is moral. In more concrete terms, justice to a convicted murderer is death, and since justice is morally good, this murderer must be murdered them self. It is after the murder of the criminal that â€Å"justice for all† is established. Despite the argument for Capital Punishment being morally right, many find it to be morally wrong. Many people find that capital punishment is morally deplorable on the basis that society has a moral obligation to protect human life, not take it. This means that we are all called upon to protect the sacredness of human life and not to take it away. On top of all this, it has been said that locking a criminal away for life achieves the same goal as Capital Punishment. This goal is to stop the violent acts committed by the criminal. Therefore, taking away a life is nonsensical and not necessary according to those who find Capital Punishment morally incorrect. The death penalty also proves to be morally wrong as it decreases the value of life, according to many. Many state that the death of anyone, even a convicted killer, diminishes us all. Evidently, morally Capital Punishment can be seen as not only wrong, but unacceptable. Ultimately, there are cases given both for the moral correctness of Capital Punishment and the moral wrongfulness (Andre 1). The decision on which one is correct lies in the hands of the individual. After researching Capital Punishment and based on my religious background and beliefs, I have formed my own opinion. In every aspect, especially morally, I find Capital Punishment to be wrong. As a living person, I respect life in every form. I believe that life is a gift from God and not one person is ustified to take that gift away. Growing up and going to church I have discovered that every day is a gift no matter what the circumstances. Whether in prison or living freely, God has granted you another day to experience life. This experience is different for everyone, but meaningful for all. This is simply another reason I find it deplorable to take the life of an individual. The ethics of Capital Puni shment is another aspect that fuels my reasoning against it. It is deeply upsetting to me that simply because of your lack of wealth or your race affect your chance at life. I believe that no matter your stature, you deserve a good attorney and a fair trial, because without a fair trial or good attorney it has been proven you are more likely to lose that trial. Being African American should not lower your chances at survival simply based on America’s court system. For a nation who claims to be almighty and great, I find it astonishing that they continue to hurt those who live there based on race and wealth. Aside from this, I am appalled by America and their lack of sacredness for life. As stated, life is a gift. If America looked at life as something sacred, as it should be, many would come to see the cruelness that comes with Capital Punishment. Lastly, as a Roman Catholic I believe â€Å"In one God, the Father almighty†. By stating this, I state that there is only one God. This one God is the only one who can grant and take away life. It is then that I ask America’s governing system, who gave them the right to play God. I do not believe that anyone has the right to simply take life away from someone. God, and only God, has the right to give and to take a life. Because If I am not mistaken, the United States of America did not grant me or anyone else life, God did. This is why I am astonished at my country’s government’s ability to take away someone’s life. Overall, I find Capital Punishment to be unjust and a moral flaw in America’s punishment system. In conclusion, Capital Punishment is still today, a consequence faced by many criminals. Many states continue to use this form of punishment, as others continue to abolish it. Nonetheless, it is a national moral issue faced by all. The case has been given by both counterparts and leaves many questioning their own belief. Many state how Capital Punishment deters crime, as others state that it has little effect. In addition, it has been said that Capital Punishment is just and lawful, despite the belief of many that it is just the opposite. Thus, I am only left to ask, if the government says it is illegal to take a human life, then why are they able to do so? Works Cited Andre, Claire, and Manuel Velasquez. Capital Punishment: Our Duty or Our Doom? Santa Clara University Welcome. Saint Clara University. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. http://www. scu. edu/ethics/publications/iie/v1n3/capital. tml. Beadue, Huggo. The Case Against the Death Penalty Cons, Anti Death Penalty Arguments. American Civil Liberties Union. American Civil Liberties Union, 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. http://www. aclu. org/capital-punishment/case-against-death-penalty. Dieter, Richard. Death Penalty Information Center. 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. http://www. deathpenaltyinfo. org. Fessenden, Ford. Deadly Statistics: A Survey Of Crime and Punishme nt New York Times.   NY Times Advertisement. New York Times, 22 Sept. 2000. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. http://www. ytimes. com/2000/09/22/us/deadly-statistics-a-survey-of-crime-and-punishment. html. Muhlhausen, David. The Death Penalty Deters Crime and Saves Lives. Conservative Policy Research and Analysis. Heritage Foundation, 28 Aug. 2007. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. http://www. heritage. org/research/testimony/the-death-penalty-deters-crime-and-saves-lives. National Coalition to Abolish Death Penalty. NCADP The National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty. 25 Dec. 2008. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. http://www. ncadp. org/index. cfm? content=25.

Passing essays

Passing essays Being truthful about who we are as individuals can be difficult and scary. People put on certain facades to make life more bearable. For example, we might say that a bully at school is only cruel to others so as to hide his/her insecurities. Coleman Silk, Clare Kendry and Irene Redfield have all taken part in the act of passing, the movement of a person who is legally or socially designated black into a white racial category or white social identity, (viii, Larsen). Although this act was used by these characters to ease lifes burdens, it only brought them loss and hardship. Passing has been a large part of many peoples lives; however, it is a very difficult way of living. In the novel The Human Stain by Philip Roth, we find Coleman Silk living his life threw passing. This is a man that worked so hard to erase his past so as to secure his future as a white man. Growing up he had faced many difficult challenges that made him make some harsh decisions. While living in New York he had met a woman by the name of Steena Palsson. She was one of his first loves. They had a great relationship, but Coleman never shared his secret with her. The day came when he took her to meet his family. It was a pleasant meeting in which Steena had the opportunity to discover Colemans secret and see what the other aspects of his life were all about. On there train ride home she was very quiet and it seemed she was resting. When they finally came to stop Coleman noticed her sadness. He tries to comfort her and she says I cant do it ! she cried, and without another w ord of explanation, gasping, violently weeping, clutch her bag to her chest and forgetting her hat, which was in his lap, where hed been holding it while she slept-she raced alone from the train as though from an attacker and did not phone him or try ever to see him again (p. 125, Roth). She left him knowing ...

Defining Homogeneous Groups in Education

Defining Homogeneous Groups in Education Homogeneous groups in educational settings is defined as groups of students organized so that students of similar instructional levels are placed together, working on materials suited to their particular level, as determined through assessments.  These groups are also known as ability groups. Homogeneous groups can be contrasted directly with heterogeneous  groups  in which students of varying abilities are grouped together. Also Known As: Ability-Based Groups Examples of Homogenous Groups in Educational Settings When organizing reading groups, the teacher puts all of the high students together in their own group. Then, the teacher meets with all of the high readers at the same time and read a higher book with them, and so on, through the various reading levels that exist in the class. When composing classrooms for the year, a school may group the talented and gifted students into a TAG classroom, while grouping students who have intellectual, emotional, or physical challenges into a different classroom. Students who fall into the middle of the spectrum are assigned to a different classroom. Students may be grouped by ability for specific subjects, but be in a heterogenous classroom most of the day. There may be an advanced math group and a group for students who need more assistance in meeting grade level for math. Advantages of Homogenous Groups A homogenous group can have a lesson plan tailored to the ability of the group as a whole, rather than having to address students with a variety of abilities and needs. Students may feel more comfortable in a group of their peers who are able to learn at about the same speed. Advanced students may not feel the pressure they experience in a heterogenous group to be an assistant instructor and always help the students who are trailing. Advanced students may not feel held back to learn at a slower pace than they can achieve when with other advanced students. Parents of advanced students are often pleased that their child is in the advanced group. This may further spur the child to achieve even more. Students who have lesser abilities than average may feel less pressure when in a homogenous group. They may have felt stigmatized by always being the slowest learner in a heterogenous group. The teacher assigned to such a group may have additional training in assisting students who have special needs or a slower learning pace. Disadvantages of Homogenous Groups There has been a move away from homogenous groups. One reason is the stigmatization of groups of students of lesser learning ability, emotional needs, or physical needs. Some studies showed that reduced expectations for such groups were a self-fulfilling prophecy. Students may be given a curriculum that wasnt challenging and therefore didnt learn as much as they would in a heterogenous group. There have been concerns that minority and economically disadvantaged students were more likely to end up in a lower-level group. Students may have varying abilities by subject and therefore being grouped into a classroom that labels them either gifted or special needs ignores that they may be high-performing in some subjects and need more assistance in others.

Application for a doctorate program in special education Personal Statement

Application for a doctorate program in special education - Personal Statement Example One thing that brings great contentment in somebody’s life is getting the opportunity to pursue one’s path that later enables him/her to see his or her aspirations become a reality. More specifically, attaining one’s academic objectives and ultimately being able to utilize the gained knowledge towards positive contribution in one’s area of specialty is great success. This is a key driving force in persons’ lives, including mine. I am requesting for a chance to participate in a doctorate program in Special Education, not because I have a yearning for a master program graduate title, but because I have a passion of delving into this field thus accomplishing my career objectives – to teach, become an administrator in the educational field and eventually teach special education practitioners at the university level. I also aspire to guarantee high performance in my area of specialization to the best of my interest and that of the public by employ ing my skills directed by integrity and accountability for progressive competence. My educational background has greatly given me exposure to invaluable essential knowledge, which will give me great backing once I enroll for this program. I possess a Masters of Arts in Special Education w/ a concentration in Autism with an overall GPA of 3.52, which is perchance the most powerful facet of my application.

Valuing cultural diversityfeeling respected as a way of managing Essay

Valuing cultural diversityfeeling respected as a way of managing diversity is tapping diversitys true benefits and HRM role to support managing cultural dive - Essay Example ept of integration-and-learning perspective, cultural diversity in terms of the access-and-legitimacy perspective and discrimination-and-fairness perspective, and integration-and-learning perspective will be identified and analysed. There are many ways in which cultural diversity at work can be strengthened. One of the major factors that causes problem in managing diversity is the behaviours of people within the working environment. (Henderson 1994, p. 133) Therefore, making employees feel respected has been considered as one of the best ways in promoting cultural diversity within the working environment. In the process of examining the truth behind this statement, the student will conduct a literature review on how the application of integration-and-learning perspective could enhance organizational learning, growth, and renewal. Prior to conclusion, the role of HRM in support of cultural diversity (under the integration-and-learning perspective) in the workplace will be thoroughly discussed. Organizational culture is actually referring to a set of norms, beliefs, principles and behaviour that gives the organization a unique character. (Naylor 1997, p. 1; Brown, 1995) In the case of David (1999, p. 143), the author defines organizational culture as â€Å"a pattern of behaviour developed by an organization to cope with problems related to external adaptation and internal integration aside from enabling the employees to feel and think positively.† The word ‘diversity’ means as â€Å"to include a variety of racial or ethical backgrounds and characteristics of humankind.† (College of the Mainland 2008) Considering the definition of diversity, the study of cultural diversity is focused on acknowledging one or more socio-demograhic traits like gender, race, ethnicity, and age (Janssens & Zanoni 2005). In other words, cultural diversity at work – also known as multiculturalism is about integrating culture in terms of employees’ age, gender, mental or physical

Inequality of Women in Relation to Class, Race and Age

Inequality of Women in Relation to Class, Race and Age INTRODUCTION This subject is about the importance of women in our society and the way they contribute to its development. In the past many traditions portrayed women as being less important than men and that is why they had many restrictions such as : little right to education, they were prohibited to vote or to detain political functions, and even they were denied the chance to have a job. The only thing they were supposed to do was the children rearing and house keeping. There was no country in the world in which womens quality of life was equal to that of men according to the health status, education opportunities, employment, and political rights. And when they were employed, they were offered a job only in a restricted range of fields having a low pay and being treated with low respect. This situation was determined by sexual discrimination and harassment. They are also confronted with wage discrimination and with long hours of unpaid labor. Although some countries allowed women to vote, some still had not done so. And there were many informal obstacles that impeached women participation in political life. Almost everywhere, there were a small number of women representing the government[1]. But regarding women as mothers, they play an important role because even if men considered this an easy task, it was no as easy as it seemed. A mother had to be aware of every movement of her child, she had to offer the child healthy food and finally to give the child a good education. The first years of life are very important and they are the basis of the future man. Children were very much bound to their mothers, and their fathers, because of the lack of time were most of the time only some strangers whom they feared. The authority was detained by the father who did not only punish the children but he also had violent reactions. Nowadays things have changed radically. The Bill of Rights stipulates that all men are equal, and women are given other opportunities. They can attend school and even higher education, can vote and detain political functions, and they must have a workplace where men treat them with respect. More and more women are independent, and they place career as being one of their priorities. The role of a mother is still very important, but it is not their main occupation. It can be said that even the way they grow up their children has changed. If in the past the father was the â€Å"head† of the family, nowadays the roles are divided. It is an interesting subject to debate because it includes differences of an old society, the traces this has left and the way things have developed. 1. Feminist views 1.1 Women, Human Beings â€Å"Human beings are not by nature kings, or nobles, or courtiers, or rich. All are born naked and poor. All are subject to the miseries of life, to frustrations, to ills, to needs, to pains of every kind. Finally, all are condemned to death. That is what the human being really is.† Jean- Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV[2]. Therefore a human being is either a man or a woman. There is only a distinction between â€Å"genders†. Starting from this idea it can be said that every person is constituted by certain traits, which characterize them as â€Å"human†, no matter what culture they belong to. These traits include the fact of mortality, the body needs for food and drink, shelter, mobility, the cognitive capacities, affiliation and concern for others etc. It also must be taken into consideration the premise that there is a common humanity that is recognized across the centuries and continents, and which aims to articulate a set of associated functions and abilities. The real difference that can be made consists on the forms of activity, of deeds and beings that constitute the human way of life and distinguish them from animals and plants. There are some essential things for an entity to be categorized as a person: autonomy, self-respect, sense of fulfillment and achievement. The autonomy of a person involves freedom of choice, of opinion and of any discrimination. Everyone should follow his own interior voice, interests according to their capacities. The interaction with others, the way in which one is perceived and accepted into a group plays an important role. Every person needs to belong to a certain social environment and the relationships they experience influence their way of being. 1.1.2 Self autonomy Self-respect, is an essential requirement of personhood which involves the sense of dignity, consciousness of autonomy and worth. It also involves consciousness of ones capacities and rights, and more importantly, commitment to ones responsibilities. A self-respecting person has a sober assessment of his/her place in the context of life and the world. The role as mother also develops a range of self-esteem because it gives a new sense to life. It makes a woman feel more responsible with her acts and it also provides her a different importance in society and makes her more mature in a way by becoming a â€Å"real woman† at last. Having a child can bring greater vitality, fun and humour, as providing her with a new insight into the world. In the past centuries almost all women saw the world through the male eyes, they occupied subordinate and inferior positions and were conditioned to limit their own life goals and self-esteem. But nowadays things have changed a lot and women dont need a man to survive. They can manage very well, they are independent because they have a job which can provide them the chance to buy whatever they like and to live without a mans support. Work is a vital part of everyones life, it intensifies confidence and self-esteem. It makes people, in general, feel complete. The way women look is an extra concern and influences the way they feel. They want to be beautiful and that is why they keep diets, do sport, go to spas, use expensive cosmetics, appeal to surgery and are careful what they put on them. Therefore self autonomy is guided by the principles of freedom and includes a series of civil liberties. Every person is free to make their own decisions and to center their deeds according to their necessities and free wills. An autonomous person lives in accordance with the dictates of reason, which is directly linked to morality. Autonomy is neutral, being placed between good and evil and the real challenge is to know what is the right way to follow, of course after passing some obstacles. 1.2 The eternal conflict It is well known that God first created man, and only after that He gave him a wife in order to multiply and to have ancestors. Because the man was first, he is considered to be the head of the family. But this headship does not mean that woman has no rights or that she is a second class citizen. On the contrary, God told the husband to love his wife and to become a single soul together with her. This headship issue is an issue of order, not of who is better or more important. Men and women are only different. They differ from the point of view of their physical appearance, ethics, behaviors, dispositions, needs etc. A man is not good or bad because he is a man. Similarly a woman is not good or bad simply because she is a woman. In other words all are subjected to mistakes. The respect to which women are different from men is important, namely because women can give birth to children, and men can not do it. This is one case in which â€Å"natural capacities† are concerned. Therefore women, having a special feature of motherhood, have the right to get special facilities to help them perform their duties as mothers without affecting their rights and responsibilities elsewhere. To perform this parental duty men also must be present in order to offer help when it comes to the childs education. In ethical and political theories, the family is often viewed as an inappropriate place for showing ones superiority, but a place for love, altruism and shared interests. If children see that sex difference is the occasion for different treatment, they could be affected in their personal and moral development. They are likely to learn injustice, by absorbing the messages, and by observing that their parents dont treat each other with respect. There is a need fo r attention to be paid in order to avoid that the children take as a negative example the way in which their parents behave and repeat it when they grow up. Empirical research in recent years has brought out clearly that women occupied lower positions than men in traditional economic and social arrangements. Thus there is a wide gap between mens and womens recorded and perceived economic participation. All the work women did such as rearing children, cleaning and maintaining the household, caring for the old and sick, and contributing in various ways to mens work, does not count as work, even if it is crucial for the survival. A first context related to notions of legitimacy and correctness is that of the gender inequalities. In a family, between women and men, or girls and boys these inequalities should be accepted as â€Å"natural†, by lining out an interesting contrast among different members. On the labor market, for example there should be rather a matter of position than of streakiness. Sometimes a man can be the manager, but a woman can occupy the same function too, in different contexts. To avoid the problem of conflict everyone must pursue the same objectives, as a result of which there will not be a disharmony of interests but a wish to collaborate in the best conditions. 2. Womens equality 2.1 Gender discrimination The concept of â€Å"equality† has been at the centre of any feminist movement. It was long been obvious that women, as a class, have remained in a state of subjugation and inferiority. They can be considered as an auxiliary of men, most of their duties being orientated towards their husbands who are frequently mentioned as their lord and master. In the Muslim countries, for example, women are given different rights regarding marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education. The marriage is arranged by the family together with the future husband. The future bride does not marry in the most cases from love, her wedding being a business for the rest of the family, because the man has to buy her from his father. In a case of a divorce, the children remain with their fathers and there are cases in which women are forbidden to see or visit them. It is a cruelty, because between mothers and children is a strong relationship in which the father shouldnt interf ere. They are not allowed to remain alone with a man if they are married, but men are allowed to have more than a wife. The employment of women varies over fields on Islamic laws. Even when women have the right to work and are educated, womens job opportunities are in practice unequal to those of men. They have limited opportunities to work in the private sector because they are expected to put their role in family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term. While many work outside home in responsible positions, the law continues to treat them as minors. Specific fields of work clearly point out that women and children below 16 are restricted. The presumption is that women are less able to protect themselves, or that men are better able to resist in hard conditions of work. The status of women on testimony is disputed. Some jurists held that certain types of testimony by women will not be accepted. In other cases, the testimony of two women can equal that of one man. The reason for this disparity has been explained in various manners, including womens lack of intelligence, womens temperament and sphere of interest. In the other moderate nations there is no legal restriction regarding the right of women to employment, equal wages and protection before the law. But even in these places women can face the same â€Å"treatment† from men. But to start surpassing this mentality, and to become mens equals at the workplace and politics, women have to go beyond the humble image that was assigned to them in the past. Both men and women should accept each other. 2.2 Gender discrimination in China and Mexico Another example concerning inequality between men and women can be seen in countries such as China. The problems that women were confronted with were the same everywhere. The revolution helped to raise the status of women. The legislation like the Marriage Law of the 1950 did not only reveal the most extreme forms of female subordination and repression, such as prostitution, concubinage, selling of women and children, but it also gave women the opportunity to make their own marital decisions. Their life was no longer restricted to the home, and they joined the agricultural and industrial work forces. Education, which was denied to women in traditional China, has become more accessible. But the education system had first given priority to men, and illiterate schools had been mainly attended by female. Many companies refused to hire female graduates from universities because their parenting responsibilities may impede business. They were also permitted to enter in the area of politics. However, many of them had lower-paid and less challenging jobs,[3] the leadership positions being dominated by men. The Chinese women were told to be â€Å"free†, but they were discouraged when they expressed their opinions. Growing up in the shadow of the Chinese morality, they were becoming accustomed with a certain degree of inferiority. Many of them got used with the idea that they are not accepted on the labor market. This mentality leads them to set low standards of life. The situation of women in Mexico is almost the same, but they are not forbidden to participate in different spheres of public life. However they suffer from inequality and injustice. Statistics on education and employment reflect that even women had the same rights as men to be actively involved in all fields of activity their actual participation is limited.[4] Regarding education, 15 % of the female population is illiterate and from the rest only 38% attended a High School. Because of this issue they are denied the opportunity to work as a qualified worker. If they managed to get a job they were paid less than man for doing the same thing. The little money they got, was for the family subsistence, and except for some privileged cases, when they had been responsible for the young children even if she had an outside job. There were cases when another woman, member of the family is employed as a domestic worker who did the house keeping. Traditional women nowadays seem to accept the unjust social arrangement in which those women had lived before and take action in order to change this situation. Even if they accept the old cultural rules and respect them, they want to be independent, to work freely and to be accepted as equals to men from all points of view. Now there is no argument, no â€Å"principle of difference† for denying women the freedom to function in all fields of activity. The need to survive and the fact that men could no longer gain enough to support his family helped women to abolish the traditional division of work according to gender. Women are more educated, many of them graduated one or even two universities. There is no reasonable matter that could be invoked to justify that men are more capable than women. The government also helps widows and single mothers and the fact that they have to grow up their children it is not an impeachment to get a good paid working place. Many of them can leave their children with their close relatives who look after them without expecting any payment. Employment makes women to improve their status within the family and enables them to have a better treatment from the part of men. 2.3 Migrant women Many women from all over the world needed to move from their home countries as part of global division of labor which was underpinned by colonial exploitation. Some came as migrants in their own right, while others came as the daughters, wives and mothers of migrant men. All of them met the institutionalized racism of the state in which they had gone. They occupied some specific locations in time and space such as America, England, Italy, Germany coming from Asia and Africa. For many of women coming to these places meant their first encounter with paid work outside home, in domains such as manufacturing or in the state sector, where they were low paid. Even if they expected to have a better life, they encountered a lot of difficulties, serving an economy designed for the metropolitan centers. It was very clear that minority family workers find themselves at the periphery and part-time jobs were never for them. The life of migrant families is in many ways distinct from the life of the others. Each year migrant families travel to remote parts of the country seeking employment on the labor market to work under bad and hazardous conditions. For example those who arrived in United States were born outside it and many had and continued to have difficulties speaking English. Due to the extreme economic conditions of migrant life, children must often take a job and family responsibilities at a young age, sometimes to the detriment of school attendance. The cost of migrating is high and is common for migrants to arrive at a new destination with little or no money or food. Living conditions are cramped such as a camp housing units consisted of one small room for each family that serves for cooking, eating and sleeping. Regarding their health even minorities have the same heath problems like the others, they use fewer health services and suffer more from diseases, disabilities and an early death. Nowadays there are organizations such as MRI[5] whose mission is to advocate for the respect, protection and fulfillment of a full range of human rights of migrants around the world and to foster unity and the inclusion of migrants in all fields. 2.4 Black women Black history is very wide and during the time it has served whites as an antidote for racism indoctrination. Blacks and whites are two separate cultures, with separate traditions and diametrically opposed past experiences. Black women have been denied important implications in the history because they were profoundly affected by having to see the world through male eyes, as the majority of women did in the past, including the white women, too. They were also conditioned to limit their own life goals, being doubly victimized by scholarly neglecting and racist conceptions. Belonging to two groups which have traditionally been treated as inferiors blacks and women- they have been almost invisible. They have always been more conscious of race oppression and sex discrimination, being subjected to all the restrictions against Blacks and against women. In no area of life they havent ever been permitted to attain higher status than white females. Additionally, because of the slavery system they were sexually exploited by white men through rape or enforced sexual services. These sexual abuses, which were characteristic to the colonizers on the conquered groups, functioned actually to fasten the badge of inferiority of the slavery societies of black people. The black men were deprived of the power and right to protect their women from white men. So, the poor black women had no support, they could not rely for protection in any part. Black women had an ambiguous role in relation to white society. They were allowed to serve white families by nursing and raising white children, cleaning their houses and attending sick people. Their wages were the lowest of all including white women. Black women were also deprived of the ballot until 1920 even if poor black men could vote. But the status of black women can be seen from two different viewpoints: as members of a larger society and within their own group. When they are taken into consideration among Blacks, they had higher status within their group than white women in their society. This paradox is the direct result of white society to black one, the result of the fact that the lowest jobs in white society are reserved for black women. For black females this means that they were trained since childhood to become workers in order to survive. They knew that they had to work even they were married or single. Work to them, unlike to white women is not a liberating goal, but rather an imposed necessity for survival. More than that, they can often find a job while black men cannot do that. Black womens aim throughout history has been for the survival of her family and of her race. Until the past decade, the access to professional jobs was closed on black women due to discrimination, they were trained only for l ower position jobs or for a life of domestic work. Thus they were given smaller chances to complete their studies, than black men, who even with a college degree could hardly find a good working place because of the race discrimination. Black women showed the pride and the strength of people who had endured great oppression. This gave them a sense of their function in the world and a strong confidence in their values. Their liberation has depended on the liberation of the race and the improvement of the life of the black community. This slavery pattern was carried out a long time and only recently was abolished and Blacks were given equal rights to those of whites. But even nowadays they seem to bear the old trace of their ancestors and not everyone regards this society as one with the same opportunities. There still are some obstacles they have to surpass such as the unkindness of many white people and the difficulty to be accepted as normal. In any case it is necessary to recognize that there is a female aspect to all histories, that women were there and that their contributions were different from those of men, regardless of the color of their skin. 2.4.1 The system of slavery Slavery resisted in practice from its inception in the United States in the early 1600s to its end, in the middle of 1800s. This formed a separate and distinct culture which bound both master and slave in a complex and interdependent relationship. The slavery system was above all a labour system, designed to extract the profit of unwilling and dependent subjects. The essence of it was that the slave was legally a piece of property to be bought and sold at the masters will. He had no legal rights, could not testify in his own behalf nor bear witness against a white person. As a result to this feature, a slave was subjected to the will of his master in all circumstances and his treatment depended on the personality and economic conditions of him. Most of them lived, not on large plantation, but in small isolated agricultural units or in small farms, where they were in close daily contact with their owners. However they lived under the worst conditions, having little clothing and one pa ir of shoes that had to last them a very long period, depending on the masters will. They slept in a single room on a bad made from straw and old rags. They ate two meals a day, being provided no table; each took their own plate or a tin pan and an iron spoon and held it in the hand or on the lap. As a general rule, no lights, no firewood, no towels, no soap, no furniture were provided to them. Source material about black women as slaves did not reveal much about their lives and feelings. In general, the life of black women under slavery was in every respect more difficult and restricted than that of the men. Their work and duties were the same as that of the men, such as work on the plantation, while childbearing and childrearing fell upon them as an added burden. Their affection for their children was used as means of tying them to their masters, children being always held as hostages in case of the mothers attempted escape. The chances to escape for female slaves were fewer than those for males. There were cases in which the severe system made them to rebel and to run away, but they were caught every time, or some of them died while trying to escape. Those who survived were punished very cruelly and imposed a more severe system of terror which could keep resistance from breaking into large-scale rebellion. Thus the harsh but tolerable system was supplemented by a terroristic system of cruelty against those slaves who dared any sign of insubordination. Most runaway slaves returned voluntary, usually driven by hunger, the absence of shelter, the vast distances to be covered, their ignorance of geography, illiteracy and general lack of knowledge. The sale of those slaves was also a common mean of punishment and discipline. Slave women took part in all aspects of resistance, from rebellion to sabotage. Many of them lived with the hope that they would be free, because they were promised that if they did their job well, they would liberate at least their children. 2.4.2 Black slave families Family life was almost inexistent and blacks got married at early ages, but always with the consent of their master and mistress. Even if a black woman was pregnant she had to do the same work regardless of how she felt about it. That is why babies were not born healthy and because of the harsh conditions of life many of them died of in the first weeks of life. Those who survived were sold, because masters did not want the time of the mother be taken up by attendance upon her children. As a favor she was permitted to go to see them once a year. Parents were never consulted, having little control over their own child. Every natural and social felling was violated with indifference. Some of them were kept as a possible working force for the time when they would grow up. When they were able to work, they had to accomplish any kind of duty, no matter how difficult it might be for the poor child. There are examples when they were kept in cold entries to work for many hours, in no good con ditions. They had to finish the work without a lamp in the evening, they had no fire in the cold seasons. The tasks were often too hard for them and yet they were expected to work well with their cold fingers and standing up as if they were sitting in a comfortable place. They also had to take care of the white babies, even if they themselves were just kids. It frequently happened that relatives, among slaves were separated for weeks or months, by the husband or brother being taken by the master on journey, to attend him and his horses. When they returned, the white husband could see his wife as soon as he arrived, but the black husband had to wait until the mistress gave his wife permission to go to him. The black women could be taken with the master in their journey too and many of them pretended that they were ill, in order to avoid being sold away from her husband and children. If it happened that the slaves got sick, they did not receive medical care. Another way in which the feeling of the salves not taken into consideration and were often wounded, was by changing their names. If at the time they were brought into a family, there was another slave having the same name or if the owner did not like the name of the new comer they received another name. Many salves were grieving at having the name of their children thus changed. There had no freedom at all, because they were continuously watched. The system of espionage was the most worrying and intolerable and if they did not obey, they were whipped. An old story shows that there was a black woman who was an exemplary worker who was both feared and respected by their masters, and who by her courage imposed some restrictions upon them. She was also the smartest black woman in that particular region and whatever she did could not be done better. She could do anything. She cooked, washed, ironed, spun, nursed and labored in the field. These skills gave her a sort of independence. Other indulgent masters protected their slaves, especially women by allowing them to rest three of four weeks before and after they got birth. They were often not punished if they did not finish the task assigned to them. Then they could take the child with them, being helped by a little girl or boy who took care of the child while the mother was working. Where there was no such support, the baby was let under a tree or by the side of a fence, and the mother returned at intervals to nurse him. 2.4.3 The education of the Black communities Regarding education in the Blacks long struggle for survival, it was always a foremost goal, both as a tool for advancement an acceptance and as a means of improving life in the black community. There were Missionary groups which were engaged in effort of educating slave children. In some regions, such as the South America, slave rebellions led to a severe legislation which forbade the education of slaves. There were also some white women who continued to teach slaves to read and write. If they were caught they went to jail, but their will to help other people made this thing not so important. Separate schools for boys and girls, which were very common among white people, were a luxury for the black communities and only few of them could afford to go there. The only separate schools for both white and black girls before the Civil War provided instruction in sewing, knitting and the household skills. Despite the poverty of Blacks and the severe discriminatory restrictions which dominated their lives, they managed in the post Civil War period to send their children to school. But many of them had to do sacrifices and to endure many sufferings for the sake of sending them to schools. The reality is reflected in the way that black families raise their children as to accept work or career as a natural part of their lives. This could help black women to be better prepared for the demand of a professional career just like the majority of white women. Obviously the slow promotion of black women in a profession was due to race discrimination, both in educational preparation and access to institutions of higher education. When they were permitted to attend schools their performances were of a great value. It is not surprising that blacks, especially womens first achievement came to prominence in the cultural fields. The black female literary tradition started with the talented Phillis Wheatley[6]. Almost a hundred years later appeared some very talented novelists such as Jessie Fauset, Zora Neale Hurston etc. belonging to the Renaissance period. Theatrical and musical careers were, like other professions, restricted by race barriers. Talented black actresses were confined to play only servant roles. Twentieth-century singers were imposed some restrictions because of their race and great number of them had to leave America for Europe, to develop their talents and careers. Among these was Marian Anderson[7], who acclaimed in Europe as one of the greatest singers in the world. In no other cultural field has the black contribution been more influential than in music (spiritual, blues, jazz) and women played an integral part in this development. In the artistic and cultural fields, as in education and some professions, the long repressed black women has bought an explosion of talent and are today a dynamic force in the creation of a uniquely expressive black culture. 2.5 About womanhood Black women are human beings too and they are not guilty because they were born black. They had to suffer the insults of possessing the most depreciative elements of humanity: being black and being women. They are just as strong and weak as any other women with the same level of education, training and environment. Their liberation depended on that of the race and on the improvement of the black community. There was a great debate about colored men getting their rig Inequality of Women in Relation to Class, Race and Age Inequality of Women in Relation to Class, Race and Age INTRODUCTION This subject is about the importance of women in our society and the way they contribute to its development. In the past many traditions portrayed women as being less important than men and that is why they had many restrictions such as : little right to education, they were prohibited to vote or to detain political functions, and even they were denied the chance to have a job. The only thing they were supposed to do was the children rearing and house keeping. There was no country in the world in which womens quality of life was equal to that of men according to the health status, education opportunities, employment, and political rights. And when they were employed, they were offered a job only in a restricted range of fields having a low pay and being treated with low respect. This situation was determined by sexual discrimination and harassment. They are also confronted with wage discrimination and with long hours of unpaid labor. Although some countries allowed women to vote, some still had not done so. And there were many informal obstacles that impeached women participation in political life. Almost everywhere, there were a small number of women representing the government[1]. But regarding women as mothers, they play an important role because even if men considered this an easy task, it was no as easy as it seemed. A mother had to be aware of every movement of her child, she had to offer the child healthy food and finally to give the child a good education. The first years of life are very important and they are the basis of the future man. Children were very much bound to their mothers, and their fathers, because of the lack of time were most of the time only some strangers whom they feared. The authority was detained by the father who did not only punish the children but he also had violent reactions. Nowadays things have changed radically. The Bill of Rights stipulates that all men are equal, and women are given other opportunities. They can attend school and even higher education, can vote and detain political functions, and they must have a workplace where men treat them with respect. More and more women are independent, and they place career as being one of their priorities. The role of a mother is still very important, but it is not their main occupation. It can be said that even the way they grow up their children has changed. If in the past the father was the â€Å"head† of the family, nowadays the roles are divided. It is an interesting subject to debate because it includes differences of an old society, the traces this has left and the way things have developed. 1. Feminist views 1.1 Women, Human Beings â€Å"Human beings are not by nature kings, or nobles, or courtiers, or rich. All are born naked and poor. All are subject to the miseries of life, to frustrations, to ills, to needs, to pains of every kind. Finally, all are condemned to death. That is what the human being really is.† Jean- Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV[2]. Therefore a human being is either a man or a woman. There is only a distinction between â€Å"genders†. Starting from this idea it can be said that every person is constituted by certain traits, which characterize them as â€Å"human†, no matter what culture they belong to. These traits include the fact of mortality, the body needs for food and drink, shelter, mobility, the cognitive capacities, affiliation and concern for others etc. It also must be taken into consideration the premise that there is a common humanity that is recognized across the centuries and continents, and which aims to articulate a set of associated functions and abilities. The real difference that can be made consists on the forms of activity, of deeds and beings that constitute the human way of life and distinguish them from animals and plants. There are some essential things for an entity to be categorized as a person: autonomy, self-respect, sense of fulfillment and achievement. The autonomy of a person involves freedom of choice, of opinion and of any discrimination. Everyone should follow his own interior voice, interests according to their capacities. The interaction with others, the way in which one is perceived and accepted into a group plays an important role. Every person needs to belong to a certain social environment and the relationships they experience influence their way of being. 1.1.2 Self autonomy Self-respect, is an essential requirement of personhood which involves the sense of dignity, consciousness of autonomy and worth. It also involves consciousness of ones capacities and rights, and more importantly, commitment to ones responsibilities. A self-respecting person has a sober assessment of his/her place in the context of life and the world. The role as mother also develops a range of self-esteem because it gives a new sense to life. It makes a woman feel more responsible with her acts and it also provides her a different importance in society and makes her more mature in a way by becoming a â€Å"real woman† at last. Having a child can bring greater vitality, fun and humour, as providing her with a new insight into the world. In the past centuries almost all women saw the world through the male eyes, they occupied subordinate and inferior positions and were conditioned to limit their own life goals and self-esteem. But nowadays things have changed a lot and women dont need a man to survive. They can manage very well, they are independent because they have a job which can provide them the chance to buy whatever they like and to live without a mans support. Work is a vital part of everyones life, it intensifies confidence and self-esteem. It makes people, in general, feel complete. The way women look is an extra concern and influences the way they feel. They want to be beautiful and that is why they keep diets, do sport, go to spas, use expensive cosmetics, appeal to surgery and are careful what they put on them. Therefore self autonomy is guided by the principles of freedom and includes a series of civil liberties. Every person is free to make their own decisions and to center their deeds according to their necessities and free wills. An autonomous person lives in accordance with the dictates of reason, which is directly linked to morality. Autonomy is neutral, being placed between good and evil and the real challenge is to know what is the right way to follow, of course after passing some obstacles. 1.2 The eternal conflict It is well known that God first created man, and only after that He gave him a wife in order to multiply and to have ancestors. Because the man was first, he is considered to be the head of the family. But this headship does not mean that woman has no rights or that she is a second class citizen. On the contrary, God told the husband to love his wife and to become a single soul together with her. This headship issue is an issue of order, not of who is better or more important. Men and women are only different. They differ from the point of view of their physical appearance, ethics, behaviors, dispositions, needs etc. A man is not good or bad because he is a man. Similarly a woman is not good or bad simply because she is a woman. In other words all are subjected to mistakes. The respect to which women are different from men is important, namely because women can give birth to children, and men can not do it. This is one case in which â€Å"natural capacities† are concerned. Therefore women, having a special feature of motherhood, have the right to get special facilities to help them perform their duties as mothers without affecting their rights and responsibilities elsewhere. To perform this parental duty men also must be present in order to offer help when it comes to the childs education. In ethical and political theories, the family is often viewed as an inappropriate place for showing ones superiority, but a place for love, altruism and shared interests. If children see that sex difference is the occasion for different treatment, they could be affected in their personal and moral development. They are likely to learn injustice, by absorbing the messages, and by observing that their parents dont treat each other with respect. There is a need fo r attention to be paid in order to avoid that the children take as a negative example the way in which their parents behave and repeat it when they grow up. Empirical research in recent years has brought out clearly that women occupied lower positions than men in traditional economic and social arrangements. Thus there is a wide gap between mens and womens recorded and perceived economic participation. All the work women did such as rearing children, cleaning and maintaining the household, caring for the old and sick, and contributing in various ways to mens work, does not count as work, even if it is crucial for the survival. A first context related to notions of legitimacy and correctness is that of the gender inequalities. In a family, between women and men, or girls and boys these inequalities should be accepted as â€Å"natural†, by lining out an interesting contrast among different members. On the labor market, for example there should be rather a matter of position than of streakiness. Sometimes a man can be the manager, but a woman can occupy the same function too, in different contexts. To avoid the problem of conflict everyone must pursue the same objectives, as a result of which there will not be a disharmony of interests but a wish to collaborate in the best conditions. 2. Womens equality 2.1 Gender discrimination The concept of â€Å"equality† has been at the centre of any feminist movement. It was long been obvious that women, as a class, have remained in a state of subjugation and inferiority. They can be considered as an auxiliary of men, most of their duties being orientated towards their husbands who are frequently mentioned as their lord and master. In the Muslim countries, for example, women are given different rights regarding marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education. The marriage is arranged by the family together with the future husband. The future bride does not marry in the most cases from love, her wedding being a business for the rest of the family, because the man has to buy her from his father. In a case of a divorce, the children remain with their fathers and there are cases in which women are forbidden to see or visit them. It is a cruelty, because between mothers and children is a strong relationship in which the father shouldnt interf ere. They are not allowed to remain alone with a man if they are married, but men are allowed to have more than a wife. The employment of women varies over fields on Islamic laws. Even when women have the right to work and are educated, womens job opportunities are in practice unequal to those of men. They have limited opportunities to work in the private sector because they are expected to put their role in family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term. While many work outside home in responsible positions, the law continues to treat them as minors. Specific fields of work clearly point out that women and children below 16 are restricted. The presumption is that women are less able to protect themselves, or that men are better able to resist in hard conditions of work. The status of women on testimony is disputed. Some jurists held that certain types of testimony by women will not be accepted. In other cases, the testimony of two women can equal that of one man. The reason for this disparity has been explained in various manners, including womens lack of intelligence, womens temperament and sphere of interest. In the other moderate nations there is no legal restriction regarding the right of women to employment, equal wages and protection before the law. But even in these places women can face the same â€Å"treatment† from men. But to start surpassing this mentality, and to become mens equals at the workplace and politics, women have to go beyond the humble image that was assigned to them in the past. Both men and women should accept each other. 2.2 Gender discrimination in China and Mexico Another example concerning inequality between men and women can be seen in countries such as China. The problems that women were confronted with were the same everywhere. The revolution helped to raise the status of women. The legislation like the Marriage Law of the 1950 did not only reveal the most extreme forms of female subordination and repression, such as prostitution, concubinage, selling of women and children, but it also gave women the opportunity to make their own marital decisions. Their life was no longer restricted to the home, and they joined the agricultural and industrial work forces. Education, which was denied to women in traditional China, has become more accessible. But the education system had first given priority to men, and illiterate schools had been mainly attended by female. Many companies refused to hire female graduates from universities because their parenting responsibilities may impede business. They were also permitted to enter in the area of politics. However, many of them had lower-paid and less challenging jobs,[3] the leadership positions being dominated by men. The Chinese women were told to be â€Å"free†, but they were discouraged when they expressed their opinions. Growing up in the shadow of the Chinese morality, they were becoming accustomed with a certain degree of inferiority. Many of them got used with the idea that they are not accepted on the labor market. This mentality leads them to set low standards of life. The situation of women in Mexico is almost the same, but they are not forbidden to participate in different spheres of public life. However they suffer from inequality and injustice. Statistics on education and employment reflect that even women had the same rights as men to be actively involved in all fields of activity their actual participation is limited.[4] Regarding education, 15 % of the female population is illiterate and from the rest only 38% attended a High School. Because of this issue they are denied the opportunity to work as a qualified worker. If they managed to get a job they were paid less than man for doing the same thing. The little money they got, was for the family subsistence, and except for some privileged cases, when they had been responsible for the young children even if she had an outside job. There were cases when another woman, member of the family is employed as a domestic worker who did the house keeping. Traditional women nowadays seem to accept the unjust social arrangement in which those women had lived before and take action in order to change this situation. Even if they accept the old cultural rules and respect them, they want to be independent, to work freely and to be accepted as equals to men from all points of view. Now there is no argument, no â€Å"principle of difference† for denying women the freedom to function in all fields of activity. The need to survive and the fact that men could no longer gain enough to support his family helped women to abolish the traditional division of work according to gender. Women are more educated, many of them graduated one or even two universities. There is no reasonable matter that could be invoked to justify that men are more capable than women. The government also helps widows and single mothers and the fact that they have to grow up their children it is not an impeachment to get a good paid working place. Many of them can leave their children with their close relatives who look after them without expecting any payment. Employment makes women to improve their status within the family and enables them to have a better treatment from the part of men. 2.3 Migrant women Many women from all over the world needed to move from their home countries as part of global division of labor which was underpinned by colonial exploitation. Some came as migrants in their own right, while others came as the daughters, wives and mothers of migrant men. All of them met the institutionalized racism of the state in which they had gone. They occupied some specific locations in time and space such as America, England, Italy, Germany coming from Asia and Africa. For many of women coming to these places meant their first encounter with paid work outside home, in domains such as manufacturing or in the state sector, where they were low paid. Even if they expected to have a better life, they encountered a lot of difficulties, serving an economy designed for the metropolitan centers. It was very clear that minority family workers find themselves at the periphery and part-time jobs were never for them. The life of migrant families is in many ways distinct from the life of the others. Each year migrant families travel to remote parts of the country seeking employment on the labor market to work under bad and hazardous conditions. For example those who arrived in United States were born outside it and many had and continued to have difficulties speaking English. Due to the extreme economic conditions of migrant life, children must often take a job and family responsibilities at a young age, sometimes to the detriment of school attendance. The cost of migrating is high and is common for migrants to arrive at a new destination with little or no money or food. Living conditions are cramped such as a camp housing units consisted of one small room for each family that serves for cooking, eating and sleeping. Regarding their health even minorities have the same heath problems like the others, they use fewer health services and suffer more from diseases, disabilities and an early death. Nowadays there are organizations such as MRI[5] whose mission is to advocate for the respect, protection and fulfillment of a full range of human rights of migrants around the world and to foster unity and the inclusion of migrants in all fields. 2.4 Black women Black history is very wide and during the time it has served whites as an antidote for racism indoctrination. Blacks and whites are two separate cultures, with separate traditions and diametrically opposed past experiences. Black women have been denied important implications in the history because they were profoundly affected by having to see the world through male eyes, as the majority of women did in the past, including the white women, too. They were also conditioned to limit their own life goals, being doubly victimized by scholarly neglecting and racist conceptions. Belonging to two groups which have traditionally been treated as inferiors blacks and women- they have been almost invisible. They have always been more conscious of race oppression and sex discrimination, being subjected to all the restrictions against Blacks and against women. In no area of life they havent ever been permitted to attain higher status than white females. Additionally, because of the slavery system they were sexually exploited by white men through rape or enforced sexual services. These sexual abuses, which were characteristic to the colonizers on the conquered groups, functioned actually to fasten the badge of inferiority of the slavery societies of black people. The black men were deprived of the power and right to protect their women from white men. So, the poor black women had no support, they could not rely for protection in any part. Black women had an ambiguous role in relation to white society. They were allowed to serve white families by nursing and raising white children, cleaning their houses and attending sick people. Their wages were the lowest of all including white women. Black women were also deprived of the ballot until 1920 even if poor black men could vote. But the status of black women can be seen from two different viewpoints: as members of a larger society and within their own group. When they are taken into consideration among Blacks, they had higher status within their group than white women in their society. This paradox is the direct result of white society to black one, the result of the fact that the lowest jobs in white society are reserved for black women. For black females this means that they were trained since childhood to become workers in order to survive. They knew that they had to work even they were married or single. Work to them, unlike to white women is not a liberating goal, but rather an imposed necessity for survival. More than that, they can often find a job while black men cannot do that. Black womens aim throughout history has been for the survival of her family and of her race. Until the past decade, the access to professional jobs was closed on black women due to discrimination, they were trained only for l ower position jobs or for a life of domestic work. Thus they were given smaller chances to complete their studies, than black men, who even with a college degree could hardly find a good working place because of the race discrimination. Black women showed the pride and the strength of people who had endured great oppression. This gave them a sense of their function in the world and a strong confidence in their values. Their liberation has depended on the liberation of the race and the improvement of the life of the black community. This slavery pattern was carried out a long time and only recently was abolished and Blacks were given equal rights to those of whites. But even nowadays they seem to bear the old trace of their ancestors and not everyone regards this society as one with the same opportunities. There still are some obstacles they have to surpass such as the unkindness of many white people and the difficulty to be accepted as normal. In any case it is necessary to recognize that there is a female aspect to all histories, that women were there and that their contributions were different from those of men, regardless of the color of their skin. 2.4.1 The system of slavery Slavery resisted in practice from its inception in the United States in the early 1600s to its end, in the middle of 1800s. This formed a separate and distinct culture which bound both master and slave in a complex and interdependent relationship. The slavery system was above all a labour system, designed to extract the profit of unwilling and dependent subjects. The essence of it was that the slave was legally a piece of property to be bought and sold at the masters will. He had no legal rights, could not testify in his own behalf nor bear witness against a white person. As a result to this feature, a slave was subjected to the will of his master in all circumstances and his treatment depended on the personality and economic conditions of him. Most of them lived, not on large plantation, but in small isolated agricultural units or in small farms, where they were in close daily contact with their owners. However they lived under the worst conditions, having little clothing and one pa ir of shoes that had to last them a very long period, depending on the masters will. They slept in a single room on a bad made from straw and old rags. They ate two meals a day, being provided no table; each took their own plate or a tin pan and an iron spoon and held it in the hand or on the lap. As a general rule, no lights, no firewood, no towels, no soap, no furniture were provided to them. Source material about black women as slaves did not reveal much about their lives and feelings. In general, the life of black women under slavery was in every respect more difficult and restricted than that of the men. Their work and duties were the same as that of the men, such as work on the plantation, while childbearing and childrearing fell upon them as an added burden. Their affection for their children was used as means of tying them to their masters, children being always held as hostages in case of the mothers attempted escape. The chances to escape for female slaves were fewer than those for males. There were cases in which the severe system made them to rebel and to run away, but they were caught every time, or some of them died while trying to escape. Those who survived were punished very cruelly and imposed a more severe system of terror which could keep resistance from breaking into large-scale rebellion. Thus the harsh but tolerable system was supplemented by a terroristic system of cruelty against those slaves who dared any sign of insubordination. Most runaway slaves returned voluntary, usually driven by hunger, the absence of shelter, the vast distances to be covered, their ignorance of geography, illiteracy and general lack of knowledge. The sale of those slaves was also a common mean of punishment and discipline. Slave women took part in all aspects of resistance, from rebellion to sabotage. Many of them lived with the hope that they would be free, because they were promised that if they did their job well, they would liberate at least their children. 2.4.2 Black slave families Family life was almost inexistent and blacks got married at early ages, but always with the consent of their master and mistress. Even if a black woman was pregnant she had to do the same work regardless of how she felt about it. That is why babies were not born healthy and because of the harsh conditions of life many of them died of in the first weeks of life. Those who survived were sold, because masters did not want the time of the mother be taken up by attendance upon her children. As a favor she was permitted to go to see them once a year. Parents were never consulted, having little control over their own child. Every natural and social felling was violated with indifference. Some of them were kept as a possible working force for the time when they would grow up. When they were able to work, they had to accomplish any kind of duty, no matter how difficult it might be for the poor child. There are examples when they were kept in cold entries to work for many hours, in no good con ditions. They had to finish the work without a lamp in the evening, they had no fire in the cold seasons. The tasks were often too hard for them and yet they were expected to work well with their cold fingers and standing up as if they were sitting in a comfortable place. They also had to take care of the white babies, even if they themselves were just kids. It frequently happened that relatives, among slaves were separated for weeks or months, by the husband or brother being taken by the master on journey, to attend him and his horses. When they returned, the white husband could see his wife as soon as he arrived, but the black husband had to wait until the mistress gave his wife permission to go to him. The black women could be taken with the master in their journey too and many of them pretended that they were ill, in order to avoid being sold away from her husband and children. If it happened that the slaves got sick, they did not receive medical care. Another way in which the feeling of the salves not taken into consideration and were often wounded, was by changing their names. If at the time they were brought into a family, there was another slave having the same name or if the owner did not like the name of the new comer they received another name. Many salves were grieving at having the name of their children thus changed. There had no freedom at all, because they were continuously watched. The system of espionage was the most worrying and intolerable and if they did not obey, they were whipped. An old story shows that there was a black woman who was an exemplary worker who was both feared and respected by their masters, and who by her courage imposed some restrictions upon them. She was also the smartest black woman in that particular region and whatever she did could not be done better. She could do anything. She cooked, washed, ironed, spun, nursed and labored in the field. These skills gave her a sort of independence. Other indulgent masters protected their slaves, especially women by allowing them to rest three of four weeks before and after they got birth. They were often not punished if they did not finish the task assigned to them. Then they could take the child with them, being helped by a little girl or boy who took care of the child while the mother was working. Where there was no such support, the baby was let under a tree or by the side of a fence, and the mother returned at intervals to nurse him. 2.4.3 The education of the Black communities Regarding education in the Blacks long struggle for survival, it was always a foremost goal, both as a tool for advancement an acceptance and as a means of improving life in the black community. There were Missionary groups which were engaged in effort of educating slave children. In some regions, such as the South America, slave rebellions led to a severe legislation which forbade the education of slaves. There were also some white women who continued to teach slaves to read and write. If they were caught they went to jail, but their will to help other people made this thing not so important. Separate schools for boys and girls, which were very common among white people, were a luxury for the black communities and only few of them could afford to go there. The only separate schools for both white and black girls before the Civil War provided instruction in sewing, knitting and the household skills. Despite the poverty of Blacks and the severe discriminatory restrictions which dominated their lives, they managed in the post Civil War period to send their children to school. But many of them had to do sacrifices and to endure many sufferings for the sake of sending them to schools. The reality is reflected in the way that black families raise their children as to accept work or career as a natural part of their lives. This could help black women to be better prepared for the demand of a professional career just like the majority of white women. Obviously the slow promotion of black women in a profession was due to race discrimination, both in educational preparation and access to institutions of higher education. When they were permitted to attend schools their performances were of a great value. It is not surprising that blacks, especially womens first achievement came to prominence in the cultural fields. The black female literary tradition started with the talented Phillis Wheatley[6]. Almost a hundred years later appeared some very talented novelists such as Jessie Fauset, Zora Neale Hurston etc. belonging to the Renaissance period. Theatrical and musical careers were, like other professions, restricted by race barriers. Talented black actresses were confined to play only servant roles. Twentieth-century singers were imposed some restrictions because of their race and great number of them had to leave America for Europe, to develop their talents and careers. Among these was Marian Anderson[7], who acclaimed in Europe as one of the greatest singers in the world. In no other cultural field has the black contribution been more influential than in music (spiritual, blues, jazz) and women played an integral part in this development. In the artistic and cultural fields, as in education and some professions, the long repressed black women has bought an explosion of talent and are today a dynamic force in the creation of a uniquely expressive black culture. 2.5 About womanhood Black women are human beings too and they are not guilty because they were born black. They had to suffer the insults of possessing the most depreciative elements of humanity: being black and being women. They are just as strong and weak as any other women with the same level of education, training and environment. Their liberation depended on that of the race and on the improvement of the black community. There was a great debate about colored men getting their rig